Built Asset Data

• The IFC schema and openBIM exchange in practice
• COBie handover data and asset information requirements
• Level of information need: specifying detail without over-modelling
• ISO 19650 information management across the asset lifecycle

Geospatial

• CityGML and 3D Tiles for city-scale model delivery
• Coordinate reference systems, projections and the georeferencing errors that break twins
• BIM-to-GIS interoperability and semantic loss during conversion
• Terrain, subsurface and utility network integration

Telemetry

• Sensor selection and placement for the decision the twin must support
• MQTT and LoRaWAN transport, edge gateways and buffering
• Time-series storage, downsampling and retention policy
• Calibration drift, missing data and the quality gates telemetry must pass

Analytics

• Energy and occupancy modelling calibrated against measured data
• Predictive maintenance and anomaly detection on building systems
• Scenario simulation for planning, mobility and climate resilience
• Visualisation and interaction layers using Cesium or a game engine runtime

Governance

• Data ownership and sharing agreements across authorities and vendors
• Privacy by design where sensing touches people, not just assets
• Operational technology cybersecurity and network segmentation
• Procurement, open standards and avoiding vendor lock-in over an asset lifetime