Inhibition

• Competitive, uncompetitive and mixed inhibition distinguished experimentally
• Substrate and product inhibition as the usual industrial bottleneck
• Solvent, pH and temperature effects on both rate and stability

Stability

• Thermal and operational half-life measured under process conditions
• Immobilisation on carriers, cross-linked aggregates and diffusion limitation
• Enzyme reuse cycles and the total turnover number that decides economics

Engineering

• Directed evolution and rational design and when each is appropriate
• Screening throughput as the true constraint on any evolution campaign
• Computational design tools and their realistic hit rates

Scale

• Space-time yield, biocatalyst yield and E-factor as the reported metrics
• Batch, fed-batch and continuous flow configurations
• Mass transfer, mixing and the reasons bench kinetics fail to scale